How far has NZ come with equal pay and pay equity since women were granted the vote in 1893 and the Equal Pay Act 1972 being passed into law on 20 October 1972? Equal pay is when men and women get paid the same for doing the same work - equal pay for equal work. Pay equity is when women and men receive the same pay for doing jobs that are different, but of equal value (that is, jobs that require similar degrees of skills, responsibility and effort). 

We'll look at attitudes to women workers and the legislative journey for equal pay. We'll also note successes along the way leading up to the Equal Pay Amendment Act 2020 which introduced a process for hearing claims; and reflect on the controversy following the introduction of the Equal Pay Amendment Act 2025. Lastly, we'll look at female-dominated professions and pay parity; the minimum wage; and celebrate women who have broken the glass ceiling. Throughout, we'll see how the gender pay gap and pay equity have been represented by cartoonists and the news media.

Gender pay gap evidence: Income surveys

Results of surveys on income from Statistics New Zealand and Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission (previously State Services Commission) have shown the extent of the gender pay gap, based on median hourly earnings. (Median pay is the middle amount of pay earned - half of employees earn less and half earn more.)   

In the June 2025 quarter, the gender pay gap had narrowed to 5.2 percent, down from 8.2 percent in the June 2024 quarter, according to figures released by Stats NZ. See: Stats New Zealand: Labour market statistics (income): June 2025 quarter

To help self-assess wages and salaries, the gender pay gap toolkit is available on the Manatū Wāhine Ministry for Women website. Tools to help measure public service gender pay gaps and gender bias in recruitment and remuneration are available on the Public Service Commission (PSC) website. These tools were jointly developed by the Ministry for Women, PSC, and Statistics NZ for use in the public sector which the private sector could also use and adapt. 

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The following explores NZ's gender pay gap through the eyes of cartoonists and the news media. 

1.  Attitudes to women workers

2.  Legislative journey for equal pay

3.  Female-dominated professions and pay parity

4.  Minimum wage

5.  Women breaking the glass ceiling

6.  Where to from here

1.  ATTITUDES TO WOMEN WORKERS

History shows employment opportunities and pay being set according to gender.  Recently, the Ministry for Women released two reports, Empirical evidence of the gender pay gap in New Zealand (March 2017) and Parenthood and labour market outcomes (May 2018). The results found that factors such as differences in education, occupations that men and women are employed in, and women being more likely to work part-time accounted for around 20 per cent of the current gender pay gap. The other 80 per cent was owing to "unexplained" factors such as conscious and unconscious bias. Societal attitudes and beliefs about the types of work appropriate for women have been satirised in the following cartoons. 

Employment inequities against Māori women & Treaty of Waitangi claim: 

A group of prominent women led by the Māori Women's Welfare League filed a claim with the Waitangi Tribunal in 1993. They were seeking to address inequities experienced in employment for Māori women resulting from the Crown's actions and policies since 1840 systemically discriminating against Māori women. The impetus for the claim had been the removal of Dame Mira Szaszy, a past President of the League, from the shortlist of appointees to the Treaty of Waitangi Fisheries Commission. The Tribunal announced in January 2018 that it would hear the Mana Wāhine claim and formally initiated the inquiry on 20 December 2018 (Wai 2700, #2.5.8).  

The Public Service Association's Te Rūnanga o Ngā Toa Āwhina also lodged a claim on the pay disparity experienced by Māori women in the government sector, which was officially registered in January 2019 by the Tribunal as part of its Mana Wāhine Kaupapa Inquiry. A judicial conference was convened on 27 May 2020 to discuss the scope and structure of the Mana Wāhine Kaupapa Inquiry and to draft terms of reference. For progress reports, see Waitangi Tribunal: Mana Wāhine Kaupapa Inquiry.      

Attitudes to Māori, Pasifika & Asian women workers:

On 15-17 November 2016, the national Gender Equality Conference was held in Wellington by the National Council of Women in New Zealand (NCWNZ).  The Tertiary Education Union and Statistics NZ shared survey findings. Whereas Pākehā women on average earned 84% of the average weekly wage of Pākehā men, Asian women earned 77%, Māori women earned 72%, and Pasifika women earned 57%. 

Challenges facing Pasifika women:

In May 2019, a Pasifika Women in the Workforce event was organised in Porirua by the Komiti Pasifika which is the NZ of Council of Trade Union's representative structure for Pacific Island workers. Accounts of institutional racisim, discrimination and pay inequality were shared with the Equal Employment Opportunities (EEO) Commissioner, Saunoamaali'i Dr Karanina Sumeo.     

Contributing factor - Educational qualifications?

During the Gender Equality Conference held in 2016, Statistics NZ explored whether education qualifications were a contributing factor for the pay inequities. However, the findings showed that Māori, Pasifika and Filipino New Zealander women outnumbered men with a Bachelor's degree: 200 Māori women for every 100 Māori men; 190 Pasifika women aged under their 30s for every 100 males; and 140 Filipino New Zealanders for every 100 men. There were similar numbers of Indian and Chinese male and female graduates with a Bachelor's degree. With regards to a post-graduate qualification, there were twice as many Pasifika, Filipino New Zealander and Korean women compared with men.  

Contributing factor: Discrimination against women as employees?

Gender Equality Conference quest speaker Shamubeel Eaqub commented that the disparities in wages were because sexism is institutionalised across NZ, from the top down in politics, public policy and the business community: "The system is stacked, and the system is discriminatory. There are more men in positions of power and they discriminate. There is this uneven playing field. We need to have a public policy solution that evens this out by force. [So positive discrimination?] Absolutely."  (Source: Radio New Zealand: Equal pay? Not for women of colour (24 Oct 2016)) 

Effect of motherhood on pay:

Statistics New Zealand and and Ministry for Women report  Effect of motherhood on pay (June 2016 quarter, published 2017) found there was a 17 percent pay gap between what mothers and fathers earn in the workforce relative to women and men without children. Research commissioned by the Ministry for Women (2018) found women face a 4.4 percent drop in hourly wages after having a child. 

2.  LEGISLATIVE JOURNEY FOR EQUAL PAY

Factory employment: 1873 -

The first legislation in NZ to regulate factory employment was the  Employment of Females Act of 1873 which dealt with hours of work, holidays, sanitation, and ventilation, but was inadequately enforced. In 1881 the Employment of Females and Others Act placed further restriction on hours of work and provided for overtime to be paid at penal rates, but also lacked adequate enforcement.  A Royal Commission (1890) set up to inquire into allegations of sweated labour found a considerable number of cases of exploitation of workers, such as girls working 18 hours a day for 7 shillings to 8 shillings a week. The Factories Act 1891 was passed and in the first months of operation, inspectors required improvements and alterations in 913 factories. It was replaced by the Factories Act 1894; then the Factories Act 1946 which provided for a maximum of a 40 hour week in any factory and an 8 hour day (excluding a meal break). (See: Woods, Noel Spencer (1966):  Labour, Department of: Control of Working conditions,  An encyclopaedia of New Zealand, p.7)

Shops and offices: 1892 -

The first legislation governing working conditions in shops in NZ was the Shops and Shop-assistants Act of 1892, which lacked effective enforcement measures. It was replaced by the Shops and Shop-assistants Act 1894 which was enforced by factory inspectors. The weekly hours of women of all ages and of boys under 18 years was limited to 52 hours and their daily hours limited to 9.5 hours, with the exception that on one working day in each week 11.5 hours might be worked.  In 1904 it was re-enacted as the Shops and Offices Act 1904, which was later re-enacted again in 1908, in 1921–22, and in 1955.  Both shops and offices were subjected to a 40-hour week but restrictions on overtime for shops did not apply to offices, nor the opening and closing hours of shops apply to offices. (See: Woods, Noel Spencer (1966):  Labour, Department of: Control of Working conditions,  An encyclopaedia of New Zealand, p.7)

Labour Day Act (1899): Campaign for 8-hour day 

The Labour Day Act 1899 commemorated the struggle of the workers' movement for men and women to work a maximum of an eight-hour day and gave workers one paid day as a holiday annually in October. 

First union to win equal pay: 1942

A notable event occurred during World War II when the New Zealand National Tramways Union, which was formed in 1939, became the first Union in New Zealand to win equal pay for women members.  Due to the wartime shortage of manpower, from 1942 women were employed as tram conductors. Whereas the employers wanted to pay lower wages, the Union Executive insisted on equal pay for equal work and won.   

Equal pay gains momentum in Public Service: 1955 - 1956

During the period of the Liberal Government (1890–1912), ministers often appointed allies and friends at all levels of public employment. In 1913, the position of  Public Service Commissioner was established to oversee appointments of public servants, excluding the Post and Telegraph Office and the Railways Department. The Commissioner classified all public-service jobs and graded the position-holders, which formed the basis of the pay rates applied across the public service. Appointments were to be made on merit and a Public-Service Appeal Board was set up which could review any appointment. During 1956, the Public Service Association (PSA) became involved in employment disputes with the Public Service Commission and the Government over the pay and promotion of its women members. 

Council for Equal Pay and Opportunity (CEPO) formed 1957

In November 1956, the PSA Equal Pay Committee called a meeting of representatives of women’s organisations and trade unions to discuss forming a national body to work toward equal pay for equal work in both the public and private sectors. The outcome was the establishment of the Council for Equal Pay and Opportunity (CEPO) on 10 April 1957. Membership included major unions, including the North Island Electrical Workers' Union, the National Council of Women, the Māori Women's Welfare League, the New Zealand Federation of University Women, the New Zealand Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs, the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA), and other groups. CEPO began a lobbying campaign for equal pay within the government and private sectors from 1957 to 1960, and from 1966 to 1972.   

Equal Pay Act for Public Service (1960) 

Following the lobbying campaign by the Council for Equal Pay and Opportunity (CEPO), the Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960 introduced equal pay legislation into the public service. The Government then set up a commission of inquiry in 1971 to report on 'how best to give effect in New Zealand to the principle of equal pay for male and female employees. 

National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women (NACEW), 1967

Equal pay activists were instrumental in the setting up of the National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women (NACEW), which was a Government organisation supported by the Department of Labour (the umbrella group for private-sector unions). The women members included a school headmistress, a Department of Education representative, and members drawn from the Joint Committee of Women and Employment (JCWE) which had been formed in 1964 by the Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs, Federation of University Women, National Council of Women and the YWCA. The Council recommended that an independent commission of inquiry be set up by the Government and that the terms of reference should focus on be how best to give effect to equal pay, rather than whether or not to introduce it. (Source: Megan Cook (22 March 2011) , Women’s labour organisations – Equal pay, mid-20th century, Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand.)

Equal Pay Act for private sector (1972)

The Government's Commission of inquiry into Equal Pay led to the Equal Pay Act 1972 for the private sector.  The outcome was that women workers in both the public and private sectors were entitled to the same rate as men doing the same job. This resulted in the gap between men and women’s hourly rate reducing to 20.8% by 1979. (See: Megan Cook (22 March 2011), Women’s labour organisations – Equal pay, mid-20th century, Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand).

Women's liberation groups, 1970S -

During the 1970s, women’s liberation movement groups were formed throughout NZ, including the Wellington and Auckland Women’s Liberation Fronts, Women for Equality, the Women’s Movement for Freedom, and the Working Women's Alliance. They campaigned for unions to pay their own women workers equally. Actions included lobbying politicians, holding public meetings, issuing press releases, and holding protest vigils at delays in delivering equal pay. Broadsheet, NZ's feminist magazine; was produced in Auckland from July 1972 to Winter 1997 by the Broadsheet Collective. (See: Wikipedia: Broadsheet (magazine))

In 1972, Connie Purdue and Sue Kedgley formed the National Organisation for Women - NOW based on NOW USA which was established in 1966 by Betty Friedan, author of The Feminine Mystique.  NOW sought equality for women before the law, in the workplace, education and family life. One of its early aims was to end the practice of listing ‘situations vacant’ advertisements by gender. (See: NZHistory: National Organisation for Women (NOW))

The fNational Women’s Liberation Conference was held in Wellington on 1-2 May 1972. Organised by the Wellington Women's Liberation Movement, its teach-ins and workshops included a session on equal pay. The subsequent United Women’s Conventions held during `1973 to 1979 aimed "to raise the status and self confidence of women and to increase the numbers of women willing to work on behalf of women's issues." (See: University of Waikato: O Neherā: United Women's Conventions New Zealand). A non-partisan group, the Women's Electoral Lobby (WEL) was formed in 1975 to encourage women’s participation in public life and help elect to public office people who would work for women’s equality. (See: NZHistory: Women's Electoral Lobby of New Zealand). In 1975, the Working Women's Council (WWC) was formed to promote the interests of working women and promoted the Working Women's Charter. 9See: NZHistory: New Zealand Working Women’s Council). Women's groups successfully lobbied for the Human Rights Commission Act 1977, which outlawed discrimination on the basis of sex.  

Working Women's Charter: 1977 -

Other women's groups worked within the Parliamentary system to bring about change. The Women’s Advisory Committee (1970–75) and the Working Women’s Council, which was set up by Sonja Davies in 1975, operated within the New Zealand Labour Party.  In 1977, the Working Women's Council issued the Working Women’s Charter, a bill of rights for working women. The Charter's provision were adopted by the Federation of Labour and the Labour Party as policy in 1980.  Provision 3 dealt with equal pay for work of equal value. (See: Megan Cook (22 March 2011), Women’s labour organisations – Women and unions, 1970s–2020s, Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand). In 1984, the Working Women’s Resource Centre was set up in Auckland to promote and encourage the implementation of the Working Women's Charter. 

International Conventions ratified: 1985 -

On 10 January 1985, New Zealand ratified the International Labour Organization Conventions No. 100 (Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951) and No. 111 (Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958), and the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discriminations Against Women (CEDAW), 1979).  Reports have been conducted by the Ministry for Women on the implementation of the CEDAW in NZ.

Coalition for Equal Value, Equal Pay (CEVEP), 1986

Following the passing of the Equal Pay Act 1972, feminists campaigned for pay equity – equal pay for women doing work with similar levels of responsibility, skill, effort or difficulty as higher-paid, male-dominated jobs. They also advocated the opening up of traditionally male-dominated industries such as construction, engineering and meat processing to women workers and apprentices. The Coalition for Equal Value, Equal Pay (CEVEP) was set up by women’s groups and unions in 1986.  

State Sector Act 1988

In 1988 the State Sector Act removed the special employment status of public servants who now came under the same employment law as for other New Zealanders. The classification system of all public sector jobs was replaced with public servants being employed by the head of the relevant department according to the terms and conditions agreed between the employer and the employee. Appointments continued to be made on merit, but the separate appeals system was abolished and each department to have an internal procedure to review appointments. Under Section 56, Chief Executives are required to be good employers and operate personnel policies for the fair and proper treatment of all employees, including an equal employment opportunities programme and  recognition of the employment requirements of women.  

Legislation on New Zealanders' rights, 1990-1993

The New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 sets out the rights and fundamental freedoms of anyone subject to New Zealand as a bill of rights. The Employment Equity Act 1990 was also passed by the Labour Government. but was repealed by the incoming National Government later the same year. The Human Rights Act 1993 includes Section 21 which prohibits discrimination in the workplace on the grounds of sex (including pregnancy and child birth), marital status and family status   

Equal Employment Opportunities (EEO): 1992 - 

In 1992, the Equal Employment Opportunities Trust (EEO) was set up by the Government to address some of the issues raised by the pay-equity campaign through the promotion to employers of the business benefits of equal-employment opportunities (EEO). However, as stated on the Ministry of Social Development website, "Pay equity was largely absent from the political agenda during the remainder of the 1990s... In July 2002, the government put out a Ministry of Women’s Affairs discussion document Next Steps Towards Employment Equity and established a Taskforce on Pay and Employment Equity in the Public Service, Health and Education, chaired by Diana Crossan." The EEO Trust broadened its focus in 2011 and changed its name in 2016 to Diversity Works New Zealand.

Pay and Employment Equity (PAEE) Unit: 2003 - 2009 

The PaEE unit was set up by the Labour Government in 2003 to provide support on establishing pay equity rates. Under its Plans of Action, all government departments, the public health sector, and the public education sector were to undertake pay and employment equity reviews (audits) and develop response plans. 

In March 2009, two pay investigations were underway for the female-dominated occupation groups of social workers and special education support workers. However, the new National government discontinued these due to "current economic and fiscal pressures". lt then disestablished the Pay and Employment Equity Office in June 2009.  The Pay Equity Challenge coalition was set up by unions, women’s organisations, academic and community groups to “challenge” the National government as to its plans for closing the gender pay gap.  

Global Women organisation launched in NZ, July 2009:

The 2008 Census of Women’s Participation report showed there were 45 women on the boards of the top 100 companies listed on the stock exchange — only 8.65 per cent of the available directorships. The Belizean Grove, a senior women’s American network, inspired discussion in NZ during 2008 to form a committee to establish the Global Women organization. The intent was to connect NZ's leading women, locally and globally, to address issues of gender inclusion, diversity and equity; and elevate more women into senior roles and on boards. The Global Women Trust Deed was formed with two goals: (1) That it {Global Women] provided an opportunity for networking and conversations in a safe environment; and (2) To do everything it can to advance women in leadership. The orgnaization was launched in July 2009 with 75 inaugural members

See: Global Women: Our History: The Founding Years 2008-2016

Pay Equality Bill 2011:

 In 2011, the Human Rights Commission released the Pay Equality Bill to allow employees to ask employers if they are receiving equal pay.  At first, Prime Minister John Key appeared open to the Bill in an interview on TVNZ's Breakfast programme, but later the same day he not only said he did not support it, but existing laws already outlawed discrimination: "We also would have real concerns if it was divisive in the workplace or had unintended consequences".  (See: Cheng, Derek (5 July 2011), Key shies from wage equity bill,, NZ Herald)

Fixing the equity pay gap: Joint Working group (JWG) established Oct 2015  

In October 2015, the Court of Appeal ruled in a case brought by care and service workers against their employer TerraNova, that the Equal Pay Act 1972 required equal pay for work of equal value (pay equity), not simply the same pay for the same work. This led to the Government establishing the Joint Working Group on Pay Equity Principles (the JWG) which included employer, union and government representatives. It's task was to recommend universally applicable pay equity principles for consideration by Government and its recommendations were accepted in November 2016.  A new pay equity claims process was created, which was aligned with the bargaining framework in the Employment Relations Act 2000, for employees and employers to assess a pay equity claim and agree on a settlement if a pay equity issue was identified.  

United Nations 'HeForShe" global campaign launched in NZ on 27 Nov 2015

The "HeForShe" global campaign to end gender inequality was launched at the United Nations in September 2014 by the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and UN Women Global Goodwill Ambassador Emma Watson. The campaign was launched in NZ on 27 November 2015.  Find out more: UN Women Aotearoa NZ: HeForShe Alliance

Oxfam's global wealth inequality report, Jan 2017

Based on Oxfam 's 2017 report, "An economy for the 99%", on the global economy, women would take 170 years to be paid the same as men due to women often taking on low-paying jobs and facing high levels of discrimination in the workplace. The Report's title stemmed from the richest 1% owning more wealth than the rest of the planet since 2015. The Report's statistics drawn from 2013 showed that in NZ, 29% of women were in the top 10% income group; 19% of women were in the top 1% income group; and the share of unpaid care work done by women was 65%.

Election year impacting on Parliamentary Bills for pay equity, 2017

During May 2017, Green MP Jan Logie's Equal Pay Amendment bill, which would require all workplaces to measure and disclose the pay gap between men and women employees, was defeated 60 votes to 59 (National, Act and United Future were opposed, and Labour, the Greens, NZ First and the Māori Party were in favour). Following proposals from the Joint Working Group (JWG), the Employment (Pay Equity and Equal Pay) Bill was introduced to Parliament on 31 July 2017, but was withdrawn in November 2017 following the formation of a new coalition Government. 

Two public sector working groups formed 2O17

A new working group of State sector agency and union representatives was formed by the SSC, PSA and NZCTU. The Gender Pay Principles Working Group began meeting in 2017 with the purpose of establishing a set of principles to be used by State sector agencies to end workplace inequalities and address issues that contribute to gender pay gaps in the State sector. The Gender Pay Principles Working Group reported back on 20 April 2018 and recommended the adoption of five core Gender Pay Principles to the State Services Commissioner. 

To address diversity and inclusion practices across the Public Service, the steering group Papa Pounamu was also established in 2017 by eleven Chief Executives. A sub-group of Papa Pounamu - Pou Mātāwaka - focused on the drivers of ethnic pay gaps.

Joint Working Group (JWG) reconvened, 2018

The Joint Working Group (JWG) on Pay Equity Principles of employer, union and government representatives was reconvened in 2018 to provide further recommendations to Ministers. The Employment (Pay Equity and Equal Pay) Bill  was reintroduced to Parliament on 22 February 2018 but was rejected on its first reading (4 April 2018).  The JWG's recommendations were used to develop a new Equal Pay Amendment Bill which was introduced into Parliament on 19 September 2018, and was passed on its third reading on 22 July 2020. 

In July 2018, the Ministers of the State Services and the Ministry for Women had jointly announced the following action plan: "Eliminating the Public Service gender pay gap 2018-2020 action plan". The final progress report (November 2021) can be viewed on the Ministry of Women's website.

Equal Pay Amendment Act 2020

The Equal Pay Amendment Act 2020 introduced a process for hearing claims. As described by the Ministry of Business Innovation & Employment (MBIE), "It  allows workers to make a pay equity claim using a process aligned with New Zealand’s existing bargaining framework. By making court action a last resort, the approach lowers the bar for workers initiating a pay equity claim, and uses a collaborative process more familiar to unions and businesses. Under the Act, employers, workers and unions negotiate in good faith, with access to mediation and dispute resolution services available if they are unable to agree."  See Factsheet; A just and practical pay equity framework.

Kia Toipoto — Public Service Pay Gaps Action Plan 2021–24

In November 2021,  "Kia Toipoto, the Public Service pay gaps action plan 2021–2024" was launched for public sector agencies and Crown entities. The plan, which was developed by the Public Service Commission and the Ministry of Women, had three goals::

• To make substantial progress towards closing gender, Māori, Pacific, and ethnic pay gaps 

• To accelerate progress for wāhine Māori, Pacific women, and women from ethnic communities 

• To create fairer workplaces for all, including disabled people and members of rainbow communities. 

See:  Public Service Commission: Pay gaps and pay euity

Equal Pay Amendment Act 2025

In 2025, the Equal Pay Act 1972 was amended to the Equal Pay Amendment Act 2025, to provide a new framework to assess claims of sex-based pay undervaluation in female-dominated occupations. It discontinued all existing pay equity claims under the previous rules; made review clauses in existing pay equity settlements unenforceable.; and required new claims to meet the requirements of the amended Act. The intent is to make the process collaborative, whereby workers or unions can initiate a pay equity claim, and the unions and businesses to work together to resolve claims and establish appropriate remuneration.  The discontinuing of the current claims which numbered 33 and the provisions of the Act have led to controversary.

3.  FEMALE-DOMINATED PROFESSIONS AND PAY PARITY 

The introduction of equal pay and anti-discrimination legislation has improved women’s pay rates and access to jobs. However, female-dominated occupations tend to be lower paid than male-dominated occupations. History shows that women are more likely to be in a narrower range of occupations (occupational segregation) and at the bottom or middle of an organisation (vertical segregation). When women take career breaks or work part-time it can affect their careers in terms of accumulating work experience and accessing professional development opportunities. Also, fewer higher-level positions are available on a part-time basis. As more women joined the workforce, women’s groups and unions focused on pay parity, childcare, flexible work hours and part-time work, and training for mothers re-entering the workforce.  

Beginning in the 19th Century, the main occupations for women included domestic servants, seamstresses, factory workers (food and clothing), shop assistants, teachers, nurses or clerical office work. With the introduction of apprenticeship schemes, women apprentices remained very rare, except in traditionally female trades such as women’s hairdressing. The historic undervaluing of work typically done by women is tracked by the following cartoons. 

DOMESTIC WORKERS:

19th Century: Assisted immigrants

During the 19th Century, subsidised or free passages were offered to single women settlers prepared to work as domestic servants. About 12,000 female assisted immigrants arrived in the 1850s and 1860s when provincial governments organised immigration. Around 20,000 arrived under the central government’s scheme in the 1870s. Working conditions were often harsh: a 16-hour day, 6½ days a week, for low wages. Servants earned 10–12 shillings a week on average, plus full board. At the top of the scale, a female cook could earn 20 shillings a week – about the same as a farm labourer, but less than many shop assistants.  (See: Jane Tolerton (25 Nov 2009), "Household services – Servants in the 19th century," Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand.)

About half of the female workforce was in domestic service in 1880, but only about one-third was in 1900.  Many left service to marry and others left for shop, hotel, office or factory jobs with better pay and free evenings and weekends. The Dunedin Tailoresses’ Union was the first women’s union, formed in 1889, which fought for shorter working hours, increased wages and the appointment of female factory inspectors by the Department of Labour. 

1900s: Domestic Workers' Union

In 1906, at a meeting in Wellington, Marianne Tasker and supporters established a domestic workers’ union to improve pay and conditions under the Liberal government’s Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act (1894). Their call to introduce a 68-hour working week led to much debate and a counter-move by employers to form a 'Committee of Employers of Domestic Employees'. (Source: Brigid Pike. 'Tasker, Marianne Allen', Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, first published in 1993. Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand). It was not until the First Labour Government's 1936 amendment the 40-hour week and compulsory unionism were introduced.  

Impact of Great Depression (1929 - 30s) on domestic service 

During the 1930s Great Depression, many women and men were out of work. Although women were required to pay unemployment tax from 1931, they were not entitled to unemployment benefits and received almost no government support. Relief committees were set up, but sometimes they pressured women to take jobs as servants, for little or even no pay. (See Megan Cook (22 March 2011), "Women’s labour organisations – Women and unemployment", Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand)

Impact of World War II on domestic service

During the  Second World War "women were ‘manpowered’ into essential work during the war – and domestic service was not in that category." (Source: Jane Tolerton (25 Nov 2009), "Household services – Domestic service since 1900", Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand).  As a consequence, whereas in 1936 there were 32,000 domestic servants; nine years later, at the end of the War, there were only 9,000.    

WOMEN APPRENTICES:

During the 19th Century, European settlers brought with them the apprenticeship scheme, whereby young workers, mainly male, worked in trades such as building, printing or saddle-making. Under the Master and Apprentice Act 1865, an employer was expected to provide ‘sufficient and suitable’ food, clothing and bedding, and to ensure that the apprentice attended church. However, there were concerns that children as young as 12 years were being exploited as unskilled labour and not being paid whilst they learnt their trade; then being fired to avoid paying them the wage of a skilled worker.  (See article by Jeremy Baker (1 May 2022), " Apprenticeships and trade training", Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand)

The Apprentices Act 1923 (also known as Apprenticeship Act) was introduced for males followed by women in 1926 when the first female hairdressing apprenticeships were recognised. Voluntary local committees set standards - wages, hours and conditions, and period of apprenticeship which usually lasted three to five years, and included some training at technical schools (polytechnics) such as electrical engineering and the motor industry.   

The outbreak of the Second World War and the demand for military equipment, saw women entering the manufacturing workforce in large numbers. As employers and the government assumed that women would leave those jobs at the end of the war,  they were mostly restricted to simple tasks and gained very little trade training.  

The Apprentices Act 1948 introduced national apprenticeship committees made up of industry and union representatives, with examinations set by the Trades Certification Board. Apprentices’ wages were set at a fixed proportion of a tradesman’s hourly rate, with each 1,000 hours equalling six months’ training.  Whereas in the 1950s, 30% of all male school leavers were expected to enter a skilled trade by completing an apprenticeship, women apprentices remained very rare, except in traditionally female trades such as women’s hairdressing.    

The Apprenticeship Act 1983revised the outdated apprenticeship system and extended it to a wider range of people, including more women trainees. However, during the 1980s and 1990s the manufacturing sector shrank and unemployment rose sharply. Large public institutions which had traditionally trained hundreds of young people each year, became profit-oriented state-owned enterprises, such as the Post Office, New Zealand Railways and the Government Printing Office.

The Industry Training and Apprenticeships Act 1992set up industry training organisations (ITOs) to take over apprenticeship training. The traditional apprenticeship contract was replaced with a training agreement between the trainee, the employer and the ITO.  Traineeships became offered in new areas such as tourism and travel, social services, and sports, fitness and recreation.  Training standards were assessed on the basis of competency instead of time served. Trade and advanced trade certificates were replaced by unit standard-based national certificates, which formed part of the National Qualifications Framework. The strategic leadership role of ITOs was recognised by a change to the Industry Training Act in 2002.  

The Modern Apprenticeships scheme, which began in 2002, aimed to combine ITO training with traditional workplace-based apprenticeships, such as building and plumbing, as well as the public sector, retail, forestry and road transport. In the 2000s, women were still not well represented in workplace-based training, except for traditionally female occupations such as hairdressing.  (See: Jeremy Baker (1 May 2022), " Apprenticeships and trade training – Apprentices become trainees", Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand)

The Apprenticeship Boost scheme began in 2020 as part of the wider Apprenticeship Support Programme, to provide funding to support apprentices and employers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing funding has since been provided by the Government. (See: Work and Income: Apprenticeship Boost:)

TEACHERS & SUPPORT STAFF: THEIR JOURNEY

National pay scales, 1877-1920:

Since the Education Act 1877, primary and secondary school teachers were paid according to their grading, which was determined by the roll size (per capita - fixed grant per student). However, wide variations existed in primary school staffing levels and teachers’ pay and conditions between Education Board regions. Parliamentary acts were passed to introduce national pay systems for primary schools (1900, 1901 and 1914), and then for secondary schools in 1920.

Women's Teacher Associations, 1901 - 1964

The Royal Education Commission's 1901 report had prompted a group of women primary school teachers to form the North Canterbury Women Teachers' Association (NCWTA) in June 1901 to protest the gender imbalance in pay scales. They also encouraged associations to form in other areas and to petition Parliament for immediate recognition of the principle of equal pay for equal work. The associations grew in number and agreed to amalgamate in 1914 to form the  New Zealand Women's Teachers' Association (NZWTA).  The Association advocated for equal pay, promotion of women to higher positions and inclusion of women in the team of school inspectors. Membership was initially restricted to primary school teachers, and then extended to secondary teachers in the early 1920s. 

See: Felicity McCardle (1993), "New Zealand Women Teachers' Association", NZHistory

After the Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960 was introduced, by 1962 women had the same opportunities and pay as men.  Following a decline in membership, the New Zealand Women's Teachers Association Executive decided to go into recess in 1964. After the 1989 reforms to decentralise the governance of primary and secondary schools, the Ministry of Education provided school boards of trustees with operational, salary and property funding.  

Tomorrow's Schools, 1989 -

The 1988 ‘Picot Report’, Administering for excellence: effective administration in education, recommended separating public sector policy and operations. In 1989, the Tomorrow’s Schools programme was introduced for reforming primary and secondary education. Under the Education Act 1989, the Ministry of Education replaced the Department of Education, and the regional Education Boards were abolished. The Education Review Office was established to monitor schools and a New Zealand Qualifications Authority was formed to oversee student assessment. Schools were managed by elected Boards of Trustees (BoTs) which were required to write their own school charters which were to include equity objectives. Under the State Sector Amendment Act 1989, schools were required to adopt an EEO policy for staff. This policy would enable women to move into senior administration positions.

In 1993, the National Education Guidelines (NEGs) and National Administration Guidelines (NAGs) were issued. The NEGs consisted of national educational goals, national curriculum statements, and national administration guidelines. The NAGs required BoTs to foster student achievement by implementing a balanced curriculum based on the New Zealand Curriculum Framework and National Curriculum Statements, monitoring student progress, and ensuring adequate planning and reporting mechanisms. New curriculum statements were developed for seven subject areas (Languages (English and others), Mathematics, Science, Technology, Social Sciences, The Arts, and Health and Physical Education) and for eight sets of essential skills.

NZEI & PPTA organisations

By the 1990s the New Zealand Educational Institute (NZEI) – the representative organisation for primary school teachers set up in 1883 – had a majority of women members. The New Zealand Post Primary Teachers' Association (PPTA) has represented teachers in secondary, area and intermediate schools for the past 60 years. By 2011 women teachers outnumbered men in both primary (82%) and secondary schools (58%). 

The strive for pay parity between kindergarten / preschool, primary and secondary school teachers; and for school support staff has continued until this day, as illustrated by the following cartoonists. Also see DigitalNZ story: Teachers take strike action.

NURSES AND MIDWIVES:

The Trained Nurses’ Association started in 1909, but it was not regarded as an union – "An editorial in Kai Tiaki, July 1909, recommended the benefits of fellowship through membership, but immediately warned, "We must, however, guard against any element of trades unionism creeping in among us. A nurse must be a woman, working, not in the first place for the sake of money-making, but for the good of her fellow creatures, to alleviate suffering when she can and help towards the health of those who need her care!" The New Zealand Nurses’ Organisation (NZNO) was formed on 1 April 1993, when the Nurses’ Association and the private-sector Nurses’ Union (formed in 1973) amalgamated. In 1996, the Health Professionals New Zealand (HPNZ) division was formed and nowadays includes medical radiologists, technologists, scientific officers, pharmacists and dieticians.   (Source: New Zealand Nurses Organisation: History)

Victory for care and support workers:

A court case won a significant victory for care and support workers in the aged and disability residential care and home and community support services.  In 2013, Kristine Bartlett took her employer TerraNova to the Employment Court arguing that her industry paid her poorly as the workers were overwhelmingly women. The Court of Appeal ruled in 2015 that they could use the Equal Pay Act 1972 to argue for equal work for equal value. On 18 April 2017, a $2.048 billion settlement offer was made to 55,000 care and support workers for significant pay increases to be introduced over five years. (See NZ Law Society)

CLEANERS:

CLERICAL STAFF:

4.  Minimum Wage 

New Zealand was the first country to establish a national minimum wage in 1894.  Under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1894, registered unions had the exclusive right to represent all their members in industrial disputes with employers. The Court of Arbitration had the power to set wages and its decisions gradually established a nationwide system of ‘awards’, setting minimum wages and working conditions for particular groups of workers. The female minimum wage, for example, was 60% of the male minimum from 1945, increasing to 65% from 1949. From 1 April 1946, there were separate minimum wage rates for men and women aged 21 years and over, excluding some general classes such as apprentices. The minimum wage was two shillings, nine pence per hour for men and one shilling, eight pence for women. On 15 March 1977, one minimum wage of $1.62 per hour for all adults was introduced. (See: Sophie Bateman (19 Dec 2018), "A brief history of the minimum wage in New Zealand", Stuff.co.nz)

Current minimum wage law is described in the Minimum Wage Act 1983 which is administered by the Ministry of Business, Innovation, and Employment (MBIE). There are three types of minimum wages for men and women - Adult, Starting-Out (previously Youth Rates) and Training - which are reviewed and updated annually. 

Figures from Stats New Zealand had shown record numbers of Kiwis migrating to Australia in 2012, which the NZ Council of Trade Unions attributed to economic difficulties and wages on average 20% higher than in NZ.  At that time the Government was also planning to re-introduce a a youth pay rate which will see 16-to-19-year-olds making a minimum $10.80 per hour, or 80 percent of the adult minimum wage, which cartoonists captured.   

Under the Employment Relations Act 2000, the Minimum Wage Act 1983 applies to all workers considered "employees".  On 1 April 2025, the minimum hourly rate increased for adults increased to $23.50, and those starting-out and training increased to $18.80.  See Employment New Zealand: Minimum wage rates and types  

WAGE COMPARISONS WITH CEO & POLITICIAN SALARIES:

Minimum wage comparisons with the salaries received by politicians and CEOs have continued to be the subject of much fodder by cartoonists. 

What low income earners would like to see happening:

BUT what low income earners have been seeing: 

CEO salaries & minimum wage views

In the NZ Herald's rankings of chief executive’s pay for all the companies on the NZX50 in August 2017, none of those companies listed any woman. Later that same year, a Westpac - Deloitte survey of 500 businesses found that only 29% of NZ's business leaders were women.

Politician salaries & minimum wage views

5.  WOMEN BREAKING THE GLASS CEILING

By the 2000s, 

"Occupational segregation had broken down to some extent. Significant numbers of women were working as lawyers, doctors and in senior positions in the public service. But many working women continued to work as nurses, teachers, shop assistants, in light manufacturing and as clerical workers." 

Source: Megan Cook (22 March 2011), "Women’s labour organisations – Women’s organisations, 1950s–2020s", Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand)

Since 2017, listed companies on the NZ Stock Exchange (NZX) main board have been required to give a breakdown of gender diversity in their annual reports. Although some women have broken through the glass ceiling, there is a still a way to go.  A Radio New Zealand interview "Law's glass ceiling exposed by numbers" (16 Sept 2017), for example, noted that only around a quarter of partners at the country's 11 biggest law firms are women, despite female graduates outnumbering men since the 1990s.  

6.  Where to from here

The Manatū Wāhine Ministry of Women released the Gender Pay Gap Fact Sheet to aid understanding of the gender pay gap, together with statistics from Stats NZ as at 30 June 2024. 

Tools available to self-assess wages and salaries for gender pay gaps include:

• Gender pay gap toolkit available on the Manatū Wāhine Ministry for Women website. 

• Public Service gender pay gaps tools can be access on the Public Service Commission (PSC) website. These tools for pay gaps and gender bias in recruitment and remuneration could also be used and adapted by the private sector. 

In July 2025, the World Economic Forum (WEF) released its annual Global Gender Gap Report. NZ was included amongst the 148 nations surveyed on four areas: Economic Participation and Opportunity; Educational Attainment, Health and Survival, and political empowerment. NZ's results included 71.6% on economic participation and 60.4% on political empowerment. Parity in ministerial positions had dropped from 81.8% to 53.8% and parliamentary representation dropped from 100% to  83.6% over the past two years. The overall data showed that NZ had slipped from fourth to fifth place with 82.7% of its gender gap closed.  According to WEF, although NZ has maintained high standards globally, a downward trajectory loomed.

Further Information

For more information about the gender pay gap, visit:

>  Employment New Zealand

>  Manatū Wāhine Ministry for Women

>  Ministry of Business Innovation & Employment (MBIE)

>  NZHistory: Employment organisations

>  Statistics New Zealand

> Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission

>  Waitangi Tribunal: Mana Wāhine Inquiry      

>  Working Women's Resource Centre

(This DigitalNZ Story was updated in Oct 2025)