NZ's Antarctic research station Scott Base was formally opened on 20 January 1957 during a ceremony on Ross Island. It was named after the British explorer Robert Falcon Scott who led two expeditions to the Ross Sea area of Antarctica between 1901 - 1913. Ross Island lies within the boundaries of the Ross Dependency, an area of Antarctica governed by New Zealand since 1923.

"Scott Base, New Zealand's only Antarctic research station, perches on a low volcanic headland called Pram Point at the southern end of Ross Island. It is 3800km south of Christchurch and 1350km from the South Pole. Mt Erebus, an active volcano, sits north-east and to the west, across McMurdo Sound, is the Royal Society Range. Here, lies the boundary between the Ross Ice Shelf and the sea ice that forms every winter. From October to February, Scott Base is a bustling hub of scientists, staff and visitors. Up to 86 people can be accommodated at any one time; during the summer season, more than 300 people stay on base."

       Source: Scott Base, URL: https://www.antarcticanz.govt.nz/scott-base  

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IN A NUTSHELL: 

Scott Base was initially established by the NZ Government to aid two events which took place during 1957-1958:

 (i) The International Geophysical Year (IGY) which investigated geophysical phenomena in various countries, including       Antarctica, from 1 July 1957-30 December 1958. 

(ii) The Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition (TAE) led by British explorer and geologist Dr Vivian Fuchs for the      first overland crossing of the continent from Weddell Sea to Ross Sea via the South Pole, which was timed to coincide with      IGY. Support was provided by a NZ team led by Sir Edmund Hillary which built Scott Base and set up food and fuel supply      depots between the South Pole and Ross Sea for the second leg of Fuchs' "Crossing Party".

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BACKSTORY: 

Ross Dependency in Antarctica governed by NZ, 1923 -

In 1838, the British Association for the Advancement of Science proposed an expedition to carry out magnetic measurements in the Antarctic. The expedition party, led by Royal Navy Captain James Clark Ross, set off aboard the HMS Erebus and the HMS Terror.  On reaching the Antarctica coast, Captain Ross discovered what became known as the Ross Sea, McMurdo Sound, the Ross Ice Shelf, Ross Island and Mt. Erebus. After landing at Victoria Land, Captain Ross laid claim to the surrounding land and nearby islands for Britain on 9 January 1841. 

On 30 July 1923, the British Government passed an Order In Council under the British Settlements Act 1887, which defined the current borders of what became known as the Ross Dependency, and appointed the Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief of New Zealand as the governor of the territory. This Order in Council was published in the New Zealand Gazette on 16 August 1923, and on 14 November 1923, Governor-General John Jellicoe issued regulations extending New Zealand law to the Ross Dependency. The post of Administrator of the Ross Dependency was created and the first person appointed was George Samuel Hooper on 15 November 1923. Later in 1957, the position's title was changed to Officers of the Government of the Ross Dependency (the Senior Officers in charge of Scott Base). See list of position-holders:  World statesmen:  "Ross Dependency (New Zealand Antarctic Territory)" 

The Ross Dependency includes part of Victoria Land, most of the Ross Ice Shelf, Scott Island, the Balleny Islands, and other adjacent islands. Later, other countries made territorial claims in Antarctica following exploratory expeditions. In 1938 France formally claimed a small sector of the Antarctic continent, Adélie Land, and in 1939, Norway claimed Queen Maud Land.

NZ inviteD to International Geophysical Year (IGY), 1957-1958

IGY modelled on International Polar Year held 1882-1883 & 1932-1933

Since 1882, countries have collaborated to conduct scientific research on the polar regions. The first research programme, named International Polar Year, had eleven countries carrying out research in the Arctic and sub-Antarctic during 1882-1883. The second International Polar Year took place fifty years later during 1932-1933 and involved forty-four countries. However, the research ended up being conducted mainly in the Arctic as the world economic slump following the "The Great Depression" had limited the funding to include Antarctica. 

IGY programme to investigate geophysical phenomena announced 1952

In 1952, the International Council of Scientific Unions announced that an international research programme to investigate geophysical phenomena in various countries, including the polar and equatorial regions, would be planned from 1957 to 1958. The research programme was named the International Geophysical Year (IGY) and involved 66 countries carrying out a series of coordinated observations of geophysical phenomena around the globe.  The timing of the IGY was chosen to coincide with a period of maximum solar activity and several eclipses. Focal areas included aurora and airglow, cosmic rays, geomagnetism, glaciology, gravity, ionospheric physics, longitude and latitude determination, meteorology, oceanography, rocketry, seismology, and solar activity.  

12 countries including NZ invited to South Pole from 1 July 1957 - 31 Dec 1958

Twelve countries were invited to go to the South Pole - Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States. The aim was to explore Antarctic hydrography and weather systems, glacial movements, ice depths, seismology, and marine life. The scientific operations were carried out from 1 July 1957 to 31 December 1958.  

Find out more:

• Wikipedia: International Polar Year, URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Polar_Year
• Wikipedia: International Geophysical Year, URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year

NZ to support TAE EXPEDITION timed to coincide with IGY

TAE Expedition: first overland crossing attempt from Weddell Sea to Ross Sea

The Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition (TAE) aimed to complete the first overland crossing of the continent from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea. Dr Vivian Fuchs, a British explorer and geologist with the Falkland Islands Dependency Survey, began proposing the expedition in 1953. The trans-crossing would be made within the territory claimed by the British Commonwealth. Fuchs also proposed timing the expedition to coincide with IGY. During the overland crossing, geological research would also be conducted, including whether Antarctica was one or two continents. Planning was to get underway in 1955 with Fuchs as the "Cross Party" leader. The first stage was to build their base (Shackleton Base) near Vahsel Bay on Weddell Sea. Then they would then begin their journey during 1957, travelling 3473 km overland from the Weddell Sea, via the South Pole, to McMurdo Sound near the Ross Sea.

NZ Govt formed Ross Sea Committee (RSC), May 1955

The NZ Government agreed to support the TAE expedition and contribute £50,000 towards the costs of forming a NZ support team and establishing a base station in McMurdo Sound. As the NZ Govt had already agreed to set up a base for NZ's involvement in the forthcoming IGY research programme, the base station would be used for both events. In addition, NZ's support team for the TAE expedition was to include an attachment of five scientists led by Dr Trevor Hatherton who would contribute to the IGY programme. The Government established the Ross Sea Committee (RSC) to coordinate NZ's contributions to TAE, including raising additional funding from the public.  

Sir Edmund Hillary was appointed to lead the NZ team that would provide support for Dr. Fuchs' TAE "Crossing Team". The Ross Sea Committee's role included selecting and training the team members whose activities were to include: building the NZ base station (which became known as Scott Base) near the Ross Sea; acquiring equipment and supplies; setting up food and fuel supply depots to support the second part of Fuchs' team from the South Pole to the Ross Sea; and establishing a vehicle route from the Polar Plateau through the Western mountains and back to McMurdo Sound. 

IGY preparations commence, 1955

U.S. 'Operation Deep Freeze' provides logistical support

As preparation for the IGY research project, the United States military formed 'Operation Deep Freeze 1' in 1955. Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd was appointed as officer in charge of the expedition. A Task Force 43, commanded by Rear Admiral George J. Dufek, was formed to provide logistical support for the IGY expedition. On 31 October 1956, an R4D Skytrain (Douglas DC-3) aircraft was successfully landed at the South Pole - the first aircraft to land at the South Pole. They constructed a research station at Antarctica, initially known as "Old Byrd" (since rebuilt as "Byrd Station" and today known as the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station). Harewood Airport, now Christchurch International Airport, became the base for 14 of the aircraft involved in the first flights between New Zealand and the Antarctic in 1955. Four other aircraft were based at Taieri Airport near Dunedin, while Lyttelton was the base for seven United States Navy vessels.   

Find out more:  Wikipedia: Operation Deep Freeze, URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Deep_Freeze

Site chosen for NZ's Antarctic base for TAE & IGY, 1955

Three NZ observers joined 'Operation Deep Freeze 1' and also had the task of choosing a research station site for NZ for use during the TAE and IGY events. The site chosen by NZ was near Butter Point. 

Prefabricated buildings designed for NZ's base station, Feb 1956 

In February 1956, Frank Ponder, an architect at the Ministry of Works, began designing the buildings for NZ's base station which required materials that could withstand minus 57 degrees Celsius. The buildings, called 'huts', were to be constructed of prefabricated materials for shipping and reassembly at Antarctica.

Six main huts (designated A to F) and three smaller huts for holding scientific equipment were designed. A dog harness room was also incorporated.

The main huts were:

(A)   A mess room, a galley, a radio room, and a leader's office

(B)   A laboratory and a darkroom

(C)  A dormitory with 14 bunks

(D)   A dormitory with six bunks and a two-bed medical room

(E)   An ablutions area, with three generators and a darkroom

(F)    A workshop, with three generators

A trial erection of the huts was carried out at Rongotai, Wellington, before the materials were disassembled for shipping to Antarctica  

Source:  'The Mess (A) Hut, Scott Base', URL:https://nzhistory.govt.nz/media/photo/caring-huts-antarctica, (Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 9-Dec-2016 

TAE preparations underway, 1955 - 1957

British bases built by Fuchs' advance party at Antarctica during 1956-57

In 1955, Fuchs and his advance party set sail aboard the Theron from London and arrived in late January 1956 at the Filchner Ice Shelf at the head of the Weddell Sea. In early 1956, Fuchs sailed back to London, leaving eight men led by Kenneth Blaiklock to winter over in tents to build the British base called Shackleton Base. In December 1956, Fuchs returned on the Danish Polar vessel Magga Dan with additional supplies. During the southern summer of 1956–1957, the Shackleton Base was completed and the smaller South Ice Base was erected about 300 miles (480 km) inland to the south for use by the "Crossing Party".  

Find out more: Wikipedia: Commonwealth Trans-Anatartic Expedition, URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition

RNZAF Antarctic Flight formed, 1956 - 1960, 1965 -

The RNZAF Antarctic Flight was formed in 1956 to support the TAE's geological research being conducted during the overland crossing. Led by Squadron Leader J.R. Claydon, the RNZAF team flew a de Havilland Beaver and an Auster floatplane. They helped transport people, dog teams and supplies, and carried out geological mapping over two summers (1956–1958) before being disbanded in 1960. RNZAF operations in Antarctica resumed in 1965 when a Hercules flew the first of what have become annual summer flights from Christchurch.  

Pre-Antarctic training in NZ began in Aug 1956

NZ team sail to Antarctica aboard HMNZS Endeavour, 21 Dec 1956

The 18 members of the TAE, led by Sir Edmund Hillary, and the five NZ scientists contributing to the IGY, led by Dr Trevor Hatherton, set sail from Wellington aboard the HMNZS Endeavour.   

NZ's base switched to Pram Point at McMurdo Sound

As sea ice had prevented shipping access to Butter Point, the NZ team switched the location of the site to Pram Point. The prefabricated materials for the erection of the base's buildings and equipment were offloaded from HMNZS Endeavour.

BUILDING OF SCOTT BASE began, 10 JAn 1957 

The ground for NZ's Scott Base was prepared by the US Navy on 10 May 1957 in readiness for the construction of the huts by a team from the NZ Navy and NZ Army:

"On 10 January the US Navy prepared the ground for the New Zealanders and two days later the construction of Scott Base began. The construction team was made up of three men from the Royal New Zealand Navy and three from the New Zealand Army. They were led by an experienced building overseer, Randall Heke, and his second in charge, Ron Mitchell, an architectural draughtsman. By 14 January they had completed ‘A’ Hut and work continued apace, assisted by parties from the Endeavour once the expedition's supplies had been unloaded."

Source:  'The Mess (A) Hut, Scott Base', URL: https://nzhistory.govt.nz/media/photo/caring-huts-antarctica, (Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 9-Dec-2016 

Scott Base officially opened on 20 Jan 1957

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SCOTT BASE OPERATIONS DURING 1950S

(A) Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition (TAE) 

Laying of food and fuel depots, Oct - Dec 1957

Fuchs' "Crossing Party" aimed to set off in November 1957 to complete the first overland crossing of the Antarctic Continent by trekking 3473 km from Britain's Shackleton Base by the Weddell Sea to McMurdo Sound via the South Pole.  As preparatory work, during October - December, the NZ party led by Sir Edmund Hillary set up a series of food and fuel supply depots from the Ross Sea to the South Pole to help Fuchs cross from the other side. Hillary's team travelled on three converted Massey Ferguson tractors, a Weasel snow vehicle, along with four dog sledding teams and airborne support from a Beaver aircraft.  

Geological surveys carried out en route by three field parties

Geological surveys were carried out along the polar route by three field parties. These included a four-month exploration of the Mawson and Skelton glaciers; exploration of the Nimrod and Beardmore glaciers by air and then returning by sledge; and exploration of the Mulock and Barne glaciers and the establishment of a route down the Darwin Glacier.  

Meanwhile, Fuchs' "Crossing Party" departed from Weddell Sea on 24 Nov 1957

Fuchs' "Crossing Party" had departed from the Weddell Sea on 24 November 1957 to travel overland to the Ross Sea near McMurdo Sound via the South Pole.  

Hillary decided to continue on to the South Pole, 20 Dec 1957

After Hillary's party reached the final depot, Depot 700, on 15 December, they learnt that Fuchs and his team would arrive at the South Pole between Christmas and the New Year. On 20 December, Hillary and four others (Murray Ellis, Peter Mulgrew, Jim Bates, and Derek Wright) decided to continue to the South Pole. They intended to mark a path through the crevassed areas for Fuchs who was expected to arrive later in December, between Christmas and the New Year.  

Hillary controversially arrived ahead of Fuchs at South Pole on 4 Jan 1958

Fifteen days after departing from Depot 700, Hillary and his team succeeded in reaching the South Pole on 4 January 1958. However, they ended up arriving ahead of Fuchs' "Crossing Party" which had been delayed en route and did not reach the South Pole until 19 January 1958. 

Hence, Hillary's New Zealand team became the third to reach the South Pole overland since Roald Amundsen on 15 December 1911 and Robert Falcon Scott on 18 January 1912. They were also the first to do so in motor vehicles. The journey taken from Scott Base to the last depot, Depot 700, and then the additional trek for the tractors to the South Pole covered c.2,000kms.  

"Hillary’s so-called ‘dash to the pole’ caused controversy as it took place without the express permission of the TAE, and against the instructions of the committee co-ordinating New Zealand’s contribution. While his devil-may-care approach appealed to many, some viewed it as an arrogant attempt to outplay Fuchs. The success of the venture ultimately overshadowed any ill-feeling."   

Source: 'Hillary leads New Zealand party to South Pole', URL: https://nzhistory.govt.nz/page/hillary-reaches-south-pole, (Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 23-Sep-2020 

Find out more about the controversary:  'Arrival at the Pole by tractor', URL:  https://nzhistory.govt.nz/media/photo/dash-pole-tractors , (Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 4-Oct-2021  '     

Fuchs' "Crossing Party" reached South Pole on 19 Jan & Ross Sea on 2 March 1958

On 19 January 1958, Fuchs' "Crossing Party" also reached the South Pole from the opposite direction (Weddell Sea) and then reached Scott Base on 2 March - completing the first crossing of Antarctica, a journey of  3473 km, in just 99 days.

(B) International Geophysical Year (IGY) research,          1 July 1957 - 31 Dec 1958

From 1957, the role of Administrator of the Ross Dependency became known as Officer of the Government of the Ross Dependency (the Senior Officer in charge of Scott Base). Dr Trevor Hatherton was appointed to the role for the first year of the International Geophysical Year (IGY).

Two teams of NZ scientists participated in the IGY research which was carried out from 1 July 1957 to 31 Dec 1958. 

(a)  Team of five NZ scientists, led by Senior Officer Dr. Trevor Hatherton, who had arrived at Scott Base with the members of       the TAE team led by Sir Edmund Hillary. The other four scientists were Vern Gerard, Peter MacDonald, Herb Orr and Neil       Sandford. They carried out research into Antarctica's geology, biology, oceanography and meteorology.  Their activities       included recordings of seismic activity; monitoring of geomagnetic field changes; radiation measurements and sea level       recordings; study of the ionosphere and radio interference; collecting data on aurora, sunspot activity and meteorology; and       monitoring of fish traps, current meters and tide gauges set up on the sea ice. 

(b)  Team of three NZ scientists who stayed at Hallett Station, a joint NZ-US station: Clayton Ingham (leader), John Humphries       and Michael Langevad. They provided weather data for incoming American aircraft, and conducted research in aurora,       geomagnetism, ionosphere and seismology. 

Source:  'Trevor Hatherton during the IGY 1957-58', URL: https://nzhistory.govt.nz/media/photo/international-geophysical-year-1957-58  

Through the seismic and geodetic surveying carried out during the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Crossing (TAE), it was revealed that Antarctica was one continent – a great basin with central highlands.  

The scientists were aided in their IGY research by equipment that had been developed since the last investigations carried out during International Polar Year of 1932-1933.

"Given the state of science in the late 1950s, the timing of the IGY was highly opportune.  Research technologies and tools had advanced greatly since the 1930s, allowing scientists a scope of investigation without precedent. Cosmic ray recorders, spectroscopes, and radiosonde balloons had opened the upper atmosphere to detailed exploration, while newly developed electronic computers facilitated the analysis of large data sets. But the most dramatic of the new technologies available to the IGY was the rocket. Post-World War II developments in rocketry for the first time made the exploration of space a real possibility; working with the new technologies. Soviet and American participants sent artificial satellites into earth orbit." 

 Source: The National Academy of Science: The International Geophysical Year

Find out more: 

• Antarctic Heritage Trust: International Geophysic Year, URL: https://nzaht.org/share/virtual-reality/international-geophysical-year/
• LEARNZ:  The International Geophysical Year, URL: https://www.learnz.org.nz/antarctica164/bg-standard-f/the-international-geophysical-year
• LEARNZ: The Trans Antarctic Expedition, URL: https://www.learnz.org.nz/antarctica164/bg-standard-f/the-trans-antarctic-expedition
• World Statesmen: Ross Dependency (New Zealand Antarctic Territory, URL: https://www.worldstatesmen.org/New_Zealand_Ross.html

C.  POST-TAE: DSIR operates Scott Base, 5 March 1958

After Fuchs' TAE expedition ended on 2 March 1958, the TAE team members departed and the scientists involved with IGY were to continue on until the end of 1958.  However, in February 1958, NZ's Cabinet approved an extension to the scientists' work into the following year as part of an extended world IGY programme termed International Geophysical Cooperation.  An agreement was reached with the Ross Sea Committee of the TAE for Scott Base to become the property of the NZ government. On 5 March 1958, NZ  took over the operation of Scott Base for scientific research under the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR).   

D.  Post-IGY: Antarctic Treaty, 1959

The Antarctic Treaty, known as the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), was signed on 1 December 1959 by the twelve countries, including NZ, that had participated in the IGY project of 1957-58. Intent was to regulate international relations, including arms control, following World War II and to foster scientific cooperation. The Treaty came into force on 23 June 1961. The Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty is located in Buenos Aires, Argentina.  

Find out more: Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, URL: https://www.ats.aq/e/secretariat.html 

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OPERATION DEEP FREEZE ONGOING, 1960s -

Since 1955, the United States has carried out a series of continuous operations in support of the National Science Foundation mission in Antarctica. The U.S. Armed Forces and New Zealand Defense Force (NZDF) provide logistic support and military personnel are deployed from the Christchurch International Airport to McMurdo Station. The flight to the Antarctic from Christchurch takes about five hours in a US Air Force C-17 Globemaster or seven hours in an RNZAF C-130 Hercules.

"Each year the NZDF undertakes C-130 Hercules flights and Boeing 757 flights (weather dependant) to Antarctica. They also provide support to Terminal Operations at Harewood (Christchurch International Airport) and McMurdo (load and passenger processing, fuel delivery, ship off-load teams), light engineering teams for Scott Base, and Scott Base support personnel (plant operators, cargo handlers, communications & administration staff). Up to 220 personnel are typically involved in this support in a season. When it comes into service, the NZDF's new ice-strengthened naval tanker will provide further support activities to Antarctica."

Source:  New Zealand Ministry of Defence, 'Antarctica', URL: https://www.defence.govt.nz/what-we-do/diplomacy-and-deployments/deployment-map/antarctica.  

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ScoTt Base operations DURING 1960s

Transportation

NZ women living & working in Antarctica, 1969 -

Prior to 1969, NZ women had visited Antarctica but were not involved in living and working there. The first NZ woman to visit the Antarctica mainland was marine zoologist Marie Darby in January 1968 when she was working as a tour guide and lecturer aboard the tourist vessel, the Magga Dan, on a sightseeing visit to Scott Base. 

From 1969, women from NZ and the U.S. were able to live and work as scientists and support staff in Antarctica.  The US Government's National Science Foundation (NSF) Antarctic research, which coordinated most of the research proposals for the Antarctic, began to accept proposals from women. A travel ban was also lifted that had been imposed on women by the US Navy, which had liaised with the NZ military under "Operation Deep Freeze" since 1950 to provide ships and aircraft to Antarctica from NZ. By contrast, Russian research in the Antarctic during the IGY programme involved women since 1956.   

Find out more: DigitalNZ Story: NZ women at Antarctica since 1969

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SCOTT BASE Operations DURING 1970s

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SCOTT BASE OPERATIONS DURING 1980S

Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP) Secretariat formed, 1988

In 1988, the international association, the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP) Secretariat, was formed by the managers of organizations in 22 countries that have responsibility for delivering and supporting scientific research in the Antarctic Treaty Area on behalf of their respective governments. COMNAP’s purpose is to develop and promote best practice in managing the support of scientific research in Antarctica. The COMNAP Secretariat has been located in Christchurch since 2009.

By 2022, membership had increased to thirty-two countries engaging in Antarctic research, called "National Antarctic Programs", that are also signatories to the Antarctic Treaty 1959 and the Environmental Protocol 1991.  There are also five Observer programs.  (See: COMNAP: Our members, URL: https://www.comnap.aq/our-members)

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SCOTT BASE OPERATIONS DURING 1990S 

Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid Protocol), 1991

The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (also known as the Madrid Protocol) was signed in Madrid on 4 October 1991 and entered into force in 1998.  This Protocol designates Antarctica as a "natural reserve, devoted to peace and science" (Article 2). It sets out environmental principles regulating activities in Antarctica, and prohibits mining activity and any activity relating to mineral resources unless for scientific research. The Protocol also established the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP)  to provide advice and formulate recommendations to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) which meets annually. 

Find out more: Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty: The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty 

Antarctica New Zealand established 1 July 1996 -

The New Zealand Antarctic Institute, known as Antarctica New Zealand, was established on 1 July 1996 by the New Zealand Government. The Institute is responsible for developing, managing, and administering New Zealand activities in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, supporting science and environmental protection. It is located at the International Antarctic Centre in Christchurch. 

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SCOTT BASE Operations DURING 2000 onwards

For an update on NZ's activities at Scott Base, see Antarctica New Zealand, URL: https://www.antarcticanz.govt.nz/

Behind the scenes videos & audio

Scott Base rebuilding programme

Find out more:

Antarctica New Zealand, URL: https://www.antarcticanz.govt.nz/ 

Antarctic Heritage Trust, URL: https://nzaht.org/

New Zealand Ministry of Defence, 'Antarctica', URL: https://www.defence.govt.nz/what-we-do/diplomacy-and-deployments/deployment-map/antarctica.  

Scott Base opens in Antarctica, URL: https://nzhistory.govt.nz/page/scott-base-opened-antarctica, (Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 24-Sep-2020 

Wikipedia: Operation Deep Freeze, URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Deep_Freeze